Nursing Education & Portfolio and E-Portfolio, Problem Based Learning, Questioning and Socratic Questioning, Reflection and Journal Writing, Astin’s Theory
Portfolio and E-Portfolio In Nursing Education
A
portfolio is a collection of student work showcasing learning, achievement, and
personal and professional development. Documentation of student skills from
prior courses or life experiences can be used for assessing learning outcomes
for a course or program, or for professional development. This may be completed
electronically (e-portfolio).
Teaching Tips for Portfolios and E-Portfolios
Students may need an orientation about how
to construct a portfolio. A content outline should provide the framework for
the portfolio but not limit student creativity. Assessment of portfolios can be
complex and difficult. The novice may want to seek consultation from experts
for assistance. Guidelines for the portfolio construction and evaluation must
be clear.
Advantages of Portfolio or E-Portfolio
Portfolios typically provide high student
motivation because they control learning. Motivated students typically learn
more. Portfolios help educators understand individual student goals and
aspirations. They encourage student reflection on learning. Independent, self confident,
and self-directed students will excel with this method.
Disadvantages of Portfolio or E-Portfolio
Portfolios must be combined with
reflective strategies to encourage student ownership of learning. They require
alternative ways of thinking about the learning process by both educators and
students. Students with low self-confidence will need much faculty assistance.
The time involvement may be high for students in development of portfolios and
for faculty in evaluation of portfolios. Unless students clearly see the
objective of a portfolio, the work involved may be viewed as busywork.
Problem Based Learning In Nursing Education
PBL uses clinical problems and
professional issues as the focus for integrating all of the content necessary
for clinical practice. It is a highly structured and learner-centered method of
teaching and learning. Real-life problems are the basis of the initial learning
content. Learning is student-initiated, usually in groups.
Faculty members are
facilitators of student learning. The five steps in the PBL process include
analysis of problems, establishment of learning outcomes, collection of
information, summarizing, and reflection.
PBL is usually used as an approach to
the entire curriculum, rather than focusing on separate disciplines or nursing
specialties. This strategy can be completed online or in the classroom, and it
can be used for inter professional or peer learning.
Teaching Tips for Problem Based Learning
Develop realistic, comprehensive clinical
problems that will prompt and advance intended learning outcomes. The case
problem presented is typically accomplished through several scenes containing
complex but realistic information that requires the students to process the
available information into categories.
Faculty workload can increase
significantly, particularly during the development stages. PBL requires close
collaboration between various disciplines if the case or curriculum is
interdisciplinary.
Orient students to the PBL approach and allow sufficient
time for students to research the problem and discuss answers. Groups of six to
nine students are most effective for PBL.
Advantages of Problem Based Learning
PBL fosters active and cooperative
learning. Students use skills of inquiry and metacognitive thinking, as well as
peer teaching and peer evaluation. The problem can be developed in
paper-and-pencil or electronic formats.
Students often work in teams or groups.
PBL can be used in interdisciplinary learning environments to develop roles and
competencies of each discipline. Contextual learning motivates students and
increases the ability to apply knowledge in clinical situations.
It increases
student responsibility for self-directed and peer learning and develops
flexible knowledge that can be applied to different contexts. This learning
method develops lifelong learning skills.
Disadvantages of Problem Based Learning
PBL
involves faculty time in developing the problem situation. Extensive time is
needed for faculty to learn to use PBL. Students require orientation to the
role of the learner in a PBL setting, and must work through potential
discrepancies in expectations and goals for learning. Student learning seems to
be connected to the effectiveness of the case as well as the functioning of the
group. It is difficult to use as a teaching technique when the class size is
large.
Questioning and Socratic Questioning In Nursing Education
Questioning is an expression of inquiry an
interrogative sentence, phrase, or gesture that invites or calls for a reply.
Socratic questioning involves probing questioning to analyze an individual’s
thinking. This strategy can be completed online or in the classroom. When using
IPE methods, be sure that all students know the “language” of the profession
and refrain from using profession specific jargon or slang.
Teaching Tips for Questioning and Socratic Questioning
Allow sufficient time to construct
thought-provoking questions. Faculty need to be prepared to facilitate the
discussion that should follow a good questioning period. Student learning is
enhanced if a pre class assignment that will lead to adequate student
preparation is designed.
Questioning can be used spontaneously, as an
exploratory strategy, or with issue-specific content. An open, trusting
classroom environment is needed. Design questions to assess the various domains
of learning.
Appropriate phrasing of questions is required so that students do
not feel demeaned by the questioning experience. Peer learning can take place
with guided peer questioning.
Advantages of Questioning and Socratic Questioning
Questioning promotes metacognition about
conclusions to be drawn, increases interaction between students and faculty,
and promotes discussion from multiple points of view. It allows students to
discuss concepts from their own experiences and discloses underlying
assumptions.
Questioning increases the articulation of evidence, stimulates
students to ask higher order thinking questions, and promotes a higher level of
problem-solving skills. Learning is transferred from the classroom to the
clinical environment and promotes thinking skills to enhance test taking
abilities.
Disadvantages of Questioning and Socratic Questioning
Questioning presumes a comprehensive knowledge
of content. Pre class preparation by student and faculty must be thorough.
Students cannot rely on a simple recitation of facts.
Reflection and Journal Writing In Nursing Education
Through this strategy students detail personal
experiences and connect them to learning outcomes. The most frequent use of
journaling is connecting classroom theories and curriculum objectives to actual
practice situations.
Oral and written reflections are equally as effective.
This strategy may be completed online, and is suited for group, peer, or
inter professional learning assignments.
Teaching Tips for Reflection and Journal Writing
Set clear expectations for journal writing
so that students know what is expected. Using different approaches to journal
writing (e.g., writing learning objectives, summary of the experience, a diary,
and focused argument) may increase student interest in the assignment.
Thoughtful feedback (not necessarily lengthy feedback) from the teacher is
important to student learning. Group discussions about the journals and what
students are saying may increase learning for all students. Using specific
thought-provoking questions in the journal enhances metacognitive thinking.
Students may need to be taught how to conduct reflective exercises. Reflective
journals are most often not graded with a letter grade. If so, grading rubrics
will set clear expectations and provide guidelines for grading uniformly.
Advantages of Reflection and Journal Writing
Reflection promotes learning from
experiences and helps students learn how to transfer facts from one context to
another. It encourages students to think about clinical experiences in relation
to didactic course content. Student-centered learning is especially valuable to
adult learners.
Reflection is helpful in demonstrating how to become a lifelong
learner. It stimulates metacognitive thinking and provides a feedback loop
between teacher and student so teaching emphasis can be modified to enhance
student learning. It can be used for all levels of nursing education.
Disadvantages of Reflection and Journal Writing
Educators may want to revert to the expert
role rather than concentrating on the students’ experiences; student-directed
learning may frustrate some teachers and may stimulate unresolved conflict
within some students.
Faculty need to direct student learning through
questioning and discussion that may cover topics in which they are not
prepared. Students may see it as only a required exercise and not take the time
to make appropriate use of the learning opportunity.
There is a high time cost
for faculty to construct reflection guidelines, read student reflections, and
help individual students process their reflections; there is a high time cost
for students to complete reflections.
Astin’s Theory for Student Engagement
Student engagement is founded on Astin’s
(1999) theory of student involvement and on the principles of Chickering and
Gamson’s (1987) seven principles of good practice in education, which include:
(1) encourage contact between students and faculty
(2) develop reciprocity and
cooperation among students
(3) encourage active learning
(4) give prompt
feedback
(5) emphasize time on task
(6) communicate high expectations
(7) respect diverse talents and ways of learning
Evidence of the learning outcomes
of student engagement over the years can be seen in research conducted by NSSE
(2013) and CCSSE (2014). Student engagement can be seen in a number of quality
indicators leading to improved learning, which include:
(1) academic challenge
(2) learning with peers
(3) experiences with faculty
(4) the campus
environment
(5) high-impact learning experiences
(6) academic advising
(7) learning with technology.
Blooms Knowledge Dimensions
Bloom’s knowledge dimensions consist of four
major types of knowledge:
(1) factual
(2) conceptual
(3) procedural
(4)
metacognitive
When selecting teaching strategies, nurse educators may use this
framework as a guideline in choosing the appropriate strategy for the knowledge
dimensions. A number of select strategies are listed in this chapter, with the
advantages and disadvantages of each, in relation to the knowledge types.
The
evidence is growing to explicate the use of student engagement and active
learning strategies, and nurse educators will want to be discerning about the
nature of the evidence in choosing the best fit for the learning environment to
prepare graduates at all levels for the complexities of today’s health care
system.