Emergent Forms Of Doctoral Education In Nursing
Taught and Non-Taught Doctorates. Reason for the Evolution of Different Doctorates.
This topic provides an overview of the differentiation between the ‘ non-taught ‘ and ‘taught’ doctorates, and examines why and how different doctoral approaches in nursing have evolved. The major forms of doctoral education examined are: professional doctoral programs (mainly taught), doctorates by published work, and doctorates by portfolio; doctoral study via distance education is also explored. Within our discussion we draw out benefits and challenges of these diverse doctoral approaches in nursing, all of which are equally robust and aim to contribute to knowledge for practice.
For the purpose of the topic doctorates may be termed ‘non-traditional doctorates’; However, we acknowledge that it is difficult to define what is traditional and non-traditional1 in a global context. We suggest that because many different doctoral education systems have emerged over time in many countries with distinct postgraduate systems, no single definition is satisfactory, and mutually exclusive criteria to categorize doctorates are difficult to identify.
While many countries have examples of ‘traditional’ PhDs by thesis, diverse new approaches to doctoral education are emerging worldwide, some based on the US Doctorate of Nursing Science (DNS) model, with others emerging within specific contexts such as practice and/or higher education policy, and are subsequently mixed in their structure and delivery. Therefore, we explore new forms of doctoral education as well as concepts that underpin current understandings of the non-taught (thesis-based PhD) and taught doctorates (professional doctorates such as DNS), and illustrate their key tenets.
Taught and Non-Taught Doctorates
Emergent Forms Of Doctoral Education In Nursing: Taught and Non Taught and Their Evaluation. The development of doctorates in nursing has given rise to two different doctoral systems: the taught (professional doctorate such as the DNS) and the non-taught (PhD degree by research thesis). A general differentiation can be made between traditional European-style PhD and taught professional doctorate routes; a PhD is an academic or research degree, whereas a DNS or its equivalent title is a clinical and application of research degree. Several published papers support such a differentiation and indicate a need for diverse routes (Seitz, 1987; Blancett, 1989; McKenna and Cutcliffe, 2001), with varied purpose.
The PhD is a research-oriented degree to train students for scholarly or research activities. It is directed towards generation of new knowledge and requires at least three years of full-time study where capacity for original research and new contribution to knowledge must be demonstrated (UK Council for Graduate Education [UKCGE], 2002). In those countries offering PhD by thesis formal guidance and structure are provided via a supervisory process.
Commonly, the student’s PhD research proposal will be formally peer reviewed by the school or faculty research committee, which will appoint a supervisor(s) with appropriate expertise. Because the PhD is attained via a successful 80,000– 100,000-word thesis only, historically it has not been a requirement that students attend lectures or undertake examinations or coursework. Increasingly, however, PhD students are encouraged to undertake research methodology training and more universities are establishing research graduate schools where students will be supported with formal research training (Higher Education Funding Council of England, 2002).
Emergent Forms Of Doctoral Education In Nursing: Taught and Non Taught and Their Evaluation. Within a typical supervisory process the supervisor(s) and student will explore the aims and objectives, methodological approach, and feasibility of the study, sample availability and whether ethical approval will be possible. The supervisor(s) will also oversee data collection and write-up. The process culminates in an oral examination of the thesis by an external examiner who is an expert in the field or a panel.
In Australia, in the majority of universities, the examination process is undertaken by forwarding the completed thesis to two to three external independent examiners who forward their written decision to the university. In contrast, the taught doctorate, or professional doctorate (DNS), is a practice-oriented professional degree to prepare students for higher level professional practice and leadership.
Usually, three years of full-time study are required (although part-time equivalents are emerging in some countries), which is directed towards transmission and application of existing knowledge, to strengthen the evidence base of nursing with the focus of research being the solution. of problems in practice and the generation of new knowledge to inform improvement in practice.
Reason for the Evolution of Different Doctorates
Emergent Forms Of Doctoral Education In Nursing: Taught and Non Taught and Their Evaluation. Established taught nursing doctorates have developed rapidly over a long period in the USA. A modular system of doctoral education emerged in the 1920s. The first program was established at
– a Doctorate of Education. The first nursing doctorate, DNS, emerged in the 1960s (Flaherty, 1989; Ketefian et al, 2001).
Subsequently, other US universities introduced other variations, such as the Doctorate of Nursing Science ( DNSc ), Doctorate of Nursing ( DNurs or DN), and Doctorate of Science in Nursing (DSN) (Pearson et al, 1997). Anderson (2000) reports incremental development of doctoral programs since their inception: 1954, n=2; 1977, n=17; 1985, n=29; 1990, n=50; 1999, n=70. Murphy (1981) describes distinct phases, arguing that initially programs educated nurses for functional roles, whereas, from the 1970s, the shift was towards education about nursing.
Ketefian et al (2001) have recently reported that the USA offers nursing doctorates from over 85 institutions. They highlight variations in style of delivery and titles but conclude that the majority of programs have a period of taught coursework followed by engagement in one or more research projects and a final dissertation.
These taught doctorates require similar amounts of credit, and present a similar modularized form covering most commonly research methods, theory development, specialization in an area of nursing science, teaching, leadership and dissertation (International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing, 2002).
In contrast, Australia has followed the traditional PhD approach, having a strong history of non-taught doctorates (PhD by research thesis) with taught doctorates having a slow uptake. In 2003, of the 37 Australian universities offering nursing education, only five offered a professional doctorate in nursing with varying forms of nomenclature used, eg Doctor of Nursing Science and Doctor of Health Science with a major in Nursing.
There are, however, a number of other professional doctorates in Australia, such as health services management, where the majority of candidates are from the nursing profession and the research undertaken relates directly to nursing practice.
Direct entry into a PhD is generally contingent upon students having previously completed a thesis or dissertation in their Master’s degree. The majority of students choosing taught doctorates in Australia tend to do so because direct entry is available without having previously undertaken a Master’s thesis.
Recent trends demonstrate that more and more Australian Master’s level students are choosing to undertake full coursework Master’s degrees rather than incorporating the thesis option in their studies, and therefore it is envisaged that future demand for ‘taught doctorates’ in Australia will increase in years to come .
The UK experience, like Australia, saw the development of professional doctorate education much later (60 years) than the North American developments. Bourner et al (2001) report that while these new approaches to doctoral education have been relatively slow to develop in the UK, there has been exponential growth in the past five years, the major drivers being the increased vocational focus of universities and problems with PhDs in practical disciplines (Galvin and Carr, 2003).
Traditional PhD programs have been criticized in the UK, with evidence that they do not always meet the needs of the industry in providing competent postdoctoral researchers, and have also been criticized as being too narrow (Booth, 2001). For example, Traynor and Rafferty (1998) estimate that there were 283 completed nursing PhDs in the years between 1976 and 1993.
A number of issues were identified concerning the output of these doctoral traditional: a clinical practice focus with the potential for direct impact on patient care was weak, with the most common research questions concerning professional issues such as workforce characteristics, service organization, management and industrial relations. As expected, the most established UK universities produced the highest number of PhDs.
Traynor and Rafferty’s study provides evidence of the need for further innovation to ensure both discipline development and future impact on clinical practice as a result of doctoral level work. The first Doctorate in Nursing Science in Europe was established at the University of Ulster in 1995 (Boore, 1997). Boore (1996) describes the curriculum which leads to a Doctorate in Nursing Science (DNS), which is modular in structure and covers three main but integrated areas: theory development, acquisition of specialist knowledge and research.
She argues that graduates (doctors of nursing science) will ‘have the knowledge base to be able to function at an advanced level and to be able to function and to develop into expert clinical practitioners, advisors, managers or educators within their particular area of expertise ‘ (Boore, 1996, p. 623). By 2003, there were six new providers of ‘taught’ doctorates in nursing in the UK and further programs are in development.
Interestingly, there has been a long and ongoing debate about the purpose and nature of PhDs in social sciences compared with PhDs in the natural sciences (Advisory Board for the Research Councils, 1993), which reflects some of the discipline-based debates; for instance, Boore (1996) indicates that within science the approach was generally to provide ‘training’, while within social sciences the emphasis has been ‘the knowledge PhD’.
In nursing and midwifery, additional difficulties with the non-taught PhD have also been identified, such as inadequate funding for full-time study; a lack of ‘structure’; problems with the application of traditional research processes in practice disciplines, and problems with regard to part-time study, which does not always strengthen research and practice links sufficiently (Mason and McKenna, 1995).
The PhD by research thesis has been described as a long and lonely endeavor with high rates of non-completion; It is of note that many nurses are also in high-pressure clinical roles and are not funded (Galvin and Carr, 2003). The average age of PhD students in nursing is 35 years compared with 25 years in the basic sciences; most students study part time after several years in clinical practice rather than studying full time directly after completion of an undergraduate degree as is the case in the basic sciences (McKenna and Cutcliffe, 2001).
Therefore, the taught doctorate is attractive to students who may enjoy peer group support and coursework milestones. Additionally, some programs are supported by a ‘graduate school’ structure (shared learning with other professionals via graduate school seminars with other disciplines). Most professional doctorates in UK nursing departments have ‘nursing’ in the title of the award, and although focused on nursing, some share units and therefore share teaching with other professionals. Clinical nursing might be the focus; However, interdisciplinary learning is also an important feature for some.
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https://nurseseducator.com/emergent-forms-of-doctoral-education-in-nursing-evolution-and-nature/
https://nurseseducator.com/emergent-forms-of-doctoral-education-in-nursing-challenges-and-benefits/
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