Challenges and Benefits to Nursing
A complicating feature of the international literature is that numerous definitions have been used to describe a diversity of courses of study. Within the discipline of nursing, a wide range of offerings, both thesis-based and primarily taught have emerged; some are at the post-registration level, some at the clinical entry, and some at the postgraduate level. In addition, some have a research or practice focus or both (Lancaster, 1984; Ziemer et al, 1992).
Furthermore, different objectives, patterns of course delivery and philosophy have emerged as doctorates have been developed internationally, confusing the picture further. For example, the US system contrasts sharply, with an absence of professional registration at the doctoral level for nursing, seen in many other countries, where the focus has been on nursing theory and science, research training and professional and educational issues.
The state of development of the literature reflects the concentration of doctorates globally, with many North American, UK and Australian papers. A number of challenges within specific doctoral programs are apparent; However, less is known about doctoral developments on a truly international scale. Therefore, the existing literature provides some differentiation between traditional PhDs and professional doctorate programs in some specific countries, but does not clarify the differentiation between diverse doctoral models in a worldwide context.
A few studies have indicated inherent problems in differentiation between the objectives and the philosophy of programs (Lancaster, 1984; Downs, 1989; Hudacek and Carpenter, 1998). Challenges include providing clarity between the objectives of professional doctorates and their structure, differentiating their philosophy and the nature of any thesis from that of the PhD by thesis, and being clear about roles they prepare students for.
Doncaster and Thorne (2000) provide helpful terminology to differentiate these roles, the ‘professional scholar’ and the ‘scholarly professional’. The non-taught doctorate (by thesis) aims to develop professional scholars who will lead and support academic developments and research, while the taught doctorate (professional doctorate) aims to produce scholarly professionals who practice with sophisticated knowledge to inform practice that includes evaluation of evidence and critical reflection. Against this backdrop, however, all doctoral theses, regardless of the format in which they have been compiled, have common objectives:
- to undertake an original inquiry which makes a substantial contribution to nursing knowledge
- to successfully complete their doctoral studies in their chosen area of research interest
- to provide evidence of the quality of the student’s understanding of the work undertaken
- to demonstrate to examiners that the inquiry undertaken has made an appropriate contribution to advancing knowledge.
Doctoral students have a diverse range of opportunities to exploit during doctoral study. Reflection upon the nature of their current role, learning style and future aspirations for career development will determine their choice of programme. In addition, internationally, the diverse range of programs adds to the rich potential to develop the nursing discipline further in both academic and practical settings. Three major forms of non-traditional doctoral education will now be examined: doctorates by published work and doctorates by portfolio, followed by a discussion on undertaking doctoral study by distance education.
Doctorates by Published Work
Traditionally, the doctoral thesis has been written in a monograph format using a series of standard topics headings such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion and Conclusion. However, in recent years, an alternative model for writing a thesis has emerged and we see many universities now giving students the option to write their thesis by published work. The thesis by publication approach is a well-established method in certain disciplines and some leading universities worldwide.
This approach ensures that the candidate has pursued rigorous research and is recognized as a scholar in the field through ongoing professional activities, grant writing, presentations, as well as submitting refereed articles for publication. These activities are undertaken prior to submitting the final thesis monograph for review and public defense by an expert panel of professors and other scientists.
Undertaking the doctorate this way allows the candidate to ‘develop an in depth knowledge of the domain of study’ and the student becomes very ‘self-directed’ ( Grypdonck , 2001, p. 6). This approach does not require that compulsory prescribed courses be taken before beginning the research investigations or by the time the work is completed.
Rather, the candidate is expected to participate in all kinds of research-related activities, including attending seminars, taking courses and/or participating in training sessions (as needed) to conduct the studies and complete several referred publications which will be included in the thesis document, which is subsequently submitted for examination.
It needs to be noted that in the USA, a number of universities granting the PhD allow students to choose the option of presenting their dissertation (thesis) through a series of published articles. However, their program of study is the same as those students submitting a traditional dissertation, and the procedures for the oral defense are the same for both options.
Two examples of the process used for preparing the doctorate by publication will be given. One is from the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands and the other from Queensland University of Technology (QUT) in Australia.
Utrecht, beginning as a school for English missionaries, was officially proclaimed a university in the year 1636, and is now one of the leading research institutions in the world. The University welcomes outstanding students from around the world to obtain a doctorate at over 52 internationally oriented research schools and institutes (University of Utrecht, 2003, http://www.uu.nl/phd ) . This process takes about four years to complete for full-time study and six years for part-time study ( Grypdonck , 2001).
Obtaining a doctorate by research with publications enables critical appraisal from blinded journal referees during doctoral studies. This leads to the development of a stronger program of research and assists in reducing flaws in any aspect of the different investigations. The criticism provided when presenting a paper at a conference or submitting a manuscript is a very important element in learning research and developing scholarship and scholarly habits.
General Format of PhD Thesis by Published Papers
The thesis by publication may comprise:
- published papers
- manuscripts accepted for publication
- manuscripts submitted for publication, or under review.
The minimum number of papers and/or manuscripts required is three, but may be more depending upon the nature of the research study. At least one paper must be published, accepted, or be undergoing review following refereeing. This number may vary from university to university depending upon local policy.
As many refereed papers have multiple authorships, consideration should be given to the number of papers the PhD candidate is principal author for. In the QUT model, the candidate must be principal author of at least two of the three papers and must have the written permission of each of the co-authors.
Normally, the thesis should include the following sections:
- Title page
- Key words
- Abstract
- List of publications and/or manuscripts
- Table of contents
- Statement of original authority
- Acknowledgements
- Introduction
- Literature review
- Methodology (optional)
- Published papers and submitted manuscripts.
- General discussion and conclusion
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