Sampling Methods and Techniques Sampling methods play a vital role in healthcare research, providing a means to select representative subsets of a population for study. This is essential for drawing valid inferences and generalizations about the broader population. In healthcare, using an entire population for research is often impractical, expensive, and time-consuming, whereas a sample can provide accurate, feasible, and economical insights. This article explores various sampling methods, including random sampling types, and their implications for health care research.
What is Sampling Method?
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative part of the population to draw valid inferences and generalizations. It allows researchers to collect and analyze data more efficiently and effectively than if they attempted to study an entire population. A well-selected sample decreases the likelihood of non-sampling errors such as measurement errors, non-response biases, and recording and coding mistakes. Sampling is crucial for achieving external validity (generalization) and also affects internal validity, which refers to the accuracy of relationships found within the sample.
However, no sample can be perfectly “representative,” “unbiased,” or “fair” (Stuart, 1968). Researchers cannot know the true population values, so determining whether a given sample truly represents the population is impossible. Instead, it is the sampling process that is evaluated for its representativeness, fairness, and lack of bias.
Types of Random Sampling
Random sampling is a method where each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected. Several types of random sampling methods are commonly used in health care research:
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is the most straightforward form of random sampling, where each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. Researchers may use tools like a table of random numbers or even a coin flip to determine which individuals or elements will be included in the sample. However, this approach can be impractical and tedious, especially with large populations, and is, therefore, infrequently used in healthcare research.
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is a more convenient form of random sampling. It involves selecting a random starting point and then choosing every kth case or instance thereafter. For example, if a researcher wants to survey patients in a hospital, they might select every fifth patient from a randomly ordered list. While more practical than simple random sampling, systematic sampling can introduce variance estimation problems (Kish, 1965).
A minimum of two systematic random samples with independent random starts is needed to estimate variance unless a random distribution of cases is assumed. Moreover, researchers must ensure that there is no systematic order or periodicity in the list used for sampling. If such patterns exist, systematic sampling could lead to a biased or misrepresented sample. For example, if the sampling interval inadvertently aligns with the sequencing of head nurses on a list, it may only select head nurses, or it might obtain blood samples when specific hormones are at their peak if the sampling time interval matches the hormone’s peak times.
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups or strata based on specific classification variables (e.g., age, sex, socioeconomic status) and then randomly sampling from each stratum. For example, in a study examining heart disease, the population might be divided into different age groups, and samples are drawn separately from each group.
This method is designed to decrease sampling variability by increasing homogeneity within strata. Stratified sampling is especially useful for ensuring representation across critical subgroups within the population. It facilitates obtaining subgroup parameter estimates, may increase the statistical efficiency of estimates when proportional allocation is used, and can be more convenient if sampling lists are organized according to the selected strata.
However, stratified sampling may also be more costly and complex and is generally applied to some but not all variables of interest. Careful consideration is needed in choosing the classification variables, as they should be associated with the dependent variable and uncorrelated with each other to maximize efficiency.
Cluster Random Sampling
Cluster sampling is another form of random sampling where the elements of interest for the study (e.g., individual patients) differ from the sampling units (e.g., practice sites or hospitals). In this method, researchers randomly select clusters (groups) and then sample all elements or a random subset within each cluster.
In contrast to stratified sampling, where every stratum is sampled, cluster sampling involves sampling only some clusters. While strata in stratified sampling should be homogeneous, clusters in cluster sampling should be as heterogeneous as possible to ensure diversity and minimize bias. However, if clusters are not heterogeneous enough, the cluster sample may be less efficient than a simple random sample of the same size. At the extreme, if clusters are entirely homogeneous, no gain is achieved from sampling more than one case per cluster.
Cluster sampling is often more economical and practical than simple random sampling, especially in large populations or geographically dispersed studies. However, it can introduce errors if clusters are not appropriately chosen or if there is significant variation between clusters.
Convenient Random Sampling
Convenience sampling, or non-probability sampling, is frequently used in nursing and health care research. This method involves selecting samples based on ease of access or availability rather than random selection. Convenience samples cannot estimate sampling errors, so the validity of inferences drawn from them to the population remains unknown. Whenever non-random selection is used, there is a risk of significant sample selection bias, which can threaten both internal and external validity.
Convenience sampling is often criticized because it does not provide a representative sample of the population, limiting the generalizability of the study results. However, it can be a practical and cost-effective method in exploratory research or when studying populations that are difficult to access.
Conclusion
Sampling methods are critical to healthcare research, providing a means to study representative subsets of a population to draw valid inferences and conclusions. Random sampling methods, including simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling, offer various approaches depending on the study’s objectives, population characteristics, and available resources. Each method has advantages and limitations, and the choice of sampling technique should be guided by the study’s specific goals, design, and practical considerations.