Quality Monitoring and Quality Criteria For Doctoral Programs: Components as Global Perspective

Quality Monitoring and Quality Criteria For Doctoral Programs

The mission of doctoral programs is to train researchers with the critical and reflective capacity for the development of scientific knowledge. Nursing scholarship values connection to practice, substantive mastery of nursing areas, philosophical analyses, rigorous investigations, and a social awareness of the relationship between knowledge development and impact on society, among others (Meleis et al, 1994).

Doctoral programs in nursing have enjoyed rapid growth in many countries in recent decades. While this is a positive sign for the advancement of nursing science, many nurse educators and scholars worldwide have been increasingly concerned about the quality of doctoral education, particularly regarding the quality of the programs, the faculty and their research, the students, and the institutional resources and infrastructure to support doctoral education.

This sentiment was aptly echoed by Anderson (2000), who emphasized the importance of ensuring appropriate prescribed standards for doctoral degrees, given the rapid growth of academic nursing in many Western countries. Minnick and Halstead (2002) noted in their survey of 87 doctoral programs in the USA the importance of having consensus among doctoral educators if we are to improve the quality of doctoral education.

In the past decade, quality assurance has become more formalized; Previously, arrangements were often informal and quality depended on individual supervisors (Pearson, 1996). However, the operationalization of standard statements for quality assurance in doctorates has challenged many universities in the UK (Schmitt, 1999).

The same can be said about Brazil and the USA. This chapter describes the major components of quality in doctoral programs and quality monitoring and evaluation processes from the perspectives of Brazil, the UK and the USA. Since each country has a different educational system and uses different terminologies for similar roles and functions, comparable words are added by ‘/’ wherever applicable, while preserving the unique features of the countries.

Components Of Quality In Doctoral Programs

Mission Of Institution/University And Quality Of Doctoral Programs

The quality of doctoral education is largely dictated by the mission of the university in which the nursing program resides. Doctoral degree granting universities are usually research intensive with the tripartite mission of teaching, research and service. In keeping with this mission, nursing doctoral programs usually place major emphasis on research, although the curriculum varies across countries.

For instance, most doctoral programs (including PhD or DNS [Doctorate of Nursing Science] degree programs) in the USA and Brazil have both coursework and research training, whereas, in Europe, many doctoral programs do not have any coursework.

Elements for formal courses usually include nursing theory, philosophy of science, advanced research methods, statistics, research and theory in areas of nursing science, and cognate areas related to the nursing investigation.

Other courses or informal teachings focus on analytical and leadership strategies for dealing with social, ethical, cultural, economic and political issues related to nursing and health care. The introduction of more taught components/coursework across many countries has also highlighted the need to make research training more sophisticated and comprehensive (Pearson, 1999).

The type of doctoral program also determines the curriculum. PhD programs primarily focus on research training, whereas professional doctoral degree programs (such as DNS) focus primarily on professional practice issues.

However, there are few differences between the two programs in the USA, as found by the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (2001): ‘The content and course requirements may vary slightly and the emphasis may be on empirical versus applied research, but the focus of the program is to prepare students to pursue intellectual inquiry and conduct independent research for the purpose of extending knowledge’ (p. 7).

The similarities come from the historical development of doctoral programs in nursing within the university systems in the USA; both types of degree programs require university approval; However, the PhD operates under the aegis of the graduate school, while the DNS does not.

In Brazil, the quality of doctoral programs is governed by the graduate guidelines set by the Foundation Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel ( Fundação Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior [CAPES]). This is a sponsoring agency that supports the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC/CAPES, 2002).

For instance, CAPES coordinates the training of human resources by accrediting and re-accrediting graduate programs. There are norms established by Sucupira Resolutions 977/65 and 77/69 of the Federal Education Council for creating doctoral programs in nursing to train researchers.

The Lash study’s (1992) finding that institutional quality (particularly that of graduate programs) greatly affects postdoctoral career attainment highlights our responsibility to uphold the quality of doctoral programs in nursing for the success of our graduates’ careers.

Faculty expertise and responsibilities In many countries, nursing PhDs are still relatively small in number, although growth has been rapid. This small number is reflected in the number of faculty with doctoral degrees. In the USA, less than 50% of nursing faculty in baccalaureate and higher degree programs possess doctorates (Anderson, 2000).

This number may have improved somewhat, but this clearly indicates that we not only have to accelerate the number of doctorally -prepared faculty, but also focus on faculty development activities for teaching and advising doctoral students, especially if other countries experience a similar situation.

To prepare faculty/academic staff who supervise PhDs in the UK, faculty members with new PhD degrees in the past became co-supervisors/advisers for one or two students and then became main supervisors/major advisers.

However, there is increasing realization that a more structured team approach with at least two supervisors is required with regular reporting schedules and formalized preparation for supervisors. This may include faculty from other disciplines, as greater confidence may be generated across faculties and for individual supervisors. Guidance also exists for joint supervision/advisement, if it becomes necessary.

In addition, training courses exist in most universities with the edict that all supervisors should have this formal assessment. Observing PhD vivas (final oral defense of the dissertation) is also one of the best learning opportunities for all supervisors, providing that candidates do not object.

Preparation for supervisors/faculty advisors should include workshops, regular faculty meetings, membership of PhD review panels/the graduate faculty, collegial mentoring, and co-supervision for more than two students.

Skills in supervision include the ability to promote intellectual growth in students, appropriate knowledge of up-to-date literature and information technology (IT) search engines, access to a network of other academics and experts, and a familiarity and hopefully partnerships with health services colleagues.

Clearly, sophisticated understanding of research methodology used in the PhD study is essential, and constant attendance at relevant conferences and updating of methodological developments should ensure this is maintained.

Academic staff/faculty expertise to supervise students and ensuring that PhD programs are educationally rewarding are important aspects of faculty advisors to make the experience of undertaking a PhD not too stressful or isolating and to ensure that the goal of a PhD leads to career gains and personal fulfillment.

Matching subject areas for students and supervisors /faculty advisors is challenging, particularly in smaller institutions. This has led topic areas to be more focused and academics/faculty members and students to be more selective and careful in choosing supervisors/faculty advisers.

Greater access to information via the World Wide Web and Internet sites means that academics/faculty can promote their fields of expertise and previous work. This enables prospective students to ‘shop around.’ Less mobile candidates may select supervisors/faculty advisors through personal contact or through a more formalized application process.

The conundrum in building academic programs/departments is whether to focus on one or two areas of research, investing in capable leaders/researchers and recruiting only those who wish to study alongside them, or alternatively to have a broader base. Larger schools may have this privilege for strategic planning.

However, having more areas of research is an attractive proposition if there are several research-able academics/faculty members in the field and it is not vulnerable to the vicissitudes of grant holders. In Brazil, the areas of interest in doctoral programs are related to different research lines in each program.

The leaders of the nursing area at CAPES/MEC (MEC/CAPES, 2001), jointly with graduate program coordinators and supervisors, have outlined the most frequently researched lines in the country. These lines include professional, clinical and organizational fields.

According to Carvalho (2002), the professional category must be understood as comprising the sociopolitical space of the profession and includes studies concerning theoretical, philosophical, historical and ethical fundamentals, as well as the technological production in the area.

The clinical category refers to the objective reality that can be perceived, thought about and represented. Therefore, the care given to human beings during the health and disease process is considered in this category. Finally, the organizational category is related to the nurse’s profession in the context of service management, health and education practices, and participation in public policies.

Student Quality Admission Criteria, Process and Issues

Admission procedures are becoming increasingly more formalized in many countries. Generally, applicants’ admission requests are reviewed by admission panels/committees/coordinators of each program to ensure that criteria are met.

Admission criteria usually include the grade point average of the Master’s degree or equivalent programme, a brief research proposal, curriculum vitae, previous academic training and qualifications, interview, and language proficiency, if relevant. Many schools in the USA also require satisfactory scores on the Graduate Record Examination or standardized tests.

Other admission criteria include good academic skills, an ability to tolerate a measure of uncertainty in their proposed study with the ability to adjust ideas and approaches, and of course, a capacity and willingness for sustained application to study.

Graduates in nursing or a relevant first degree, with preferably a Master’s degree in nursing or some postgraduate qualification, usually qualify for admission as postgraduate students in the UK. They then may need to go through one or two processes before being registered as a PhD student.

For instance, several universities in the UK admit students to a first-year status of postgraduate student or Master in Philosophy to ensure they have sufficient potential and are able to work on their proposed research project satisfactorily.

Subsequently, an upgrading to PhD occurs based on a report submitted on progress and plans for the main PhD project—this includes an interview with other academics. Some colleges of nursing in the USA provide options to apply for the PhD degree from the BSN (Bachelor of Nursing Science) or Master’s degree program, when students show exceptional promise and academic excellence.

BSN graduates usually take summer externships for clinical experience and take RN (registered nurse) licensure examination while they continue required courses at the graduate level.

The UK has been keen to improve recruitment and quality and there has been stronger quality control for registration of PhD students. Recommendations across disciplines include emphasizing key or transferrable skills rather than technical skills, giving students more authority over their studies, and introducing four-year programs with more skills training.

These are listed by the UK Quality Assurance Agency, as: the development of a broad understanding of the context in which the research takes place; analytical and research skills, including the understanding of project design and research methodologies, appropriate to the subject and program of study; general and employment-related skills, including interpersonal and teamwork skills; project management, information retrieval, and database management; written and oral presentation skills; career planning and advice and intellectual property rights management; language support and academic writing skills; training and support for those researchers who may be involved in teaching and demonstrating activities.

In this UK document, a framework for assuring academic quality and standards is also usefully provided. One major issue with admission is that most students in nursing and midwifery are recruited on a part-time basis. This creates challenges that many other disciplines do not have.

Apart from the fact that most graduate students also have family responsibilities and are in paid employment, the elongation of the PhD progress is often difficult to manage (Pearson, 1999). So often student quality has less to do with ability and more to do with responsibilities that may not allow sufficient opportunity for concentrated thinking, data collection and writing.

However, when motivated and when proposals use the work setting or are part of commissioned work, students can achieve success. Yet, more professionally oriented programs may also allow for work settings and problems to become part of a study, allowing further opportunities to integrate studies with paid employment (Boore, 1996).

While the average time-to-graduation ranges from 3.5–4 years for full-time post-Master’s students, it is usually twice as long for part-time students. Another issue is financial support. The magnitude of need varies as a function of the system. All nursing doctoral programs in Brazil are linked to public universities that do not charge tuition.

Doctoral students can also apply to national financial support agencies for grants in order to develop their theses. To that end, they must apply and submit to a selection process that is conducted by the agency annually.

On the other hand, doctoral students in the USA pay tuition and fees from their private funds; Scholarships, or predoctoral fellowships are available from the federal government (eg the National Institutes of Health) on a competitive basis, with the sponsorship of faculty advisors. In the UK, all students must pay tuition fees. Some may be supported by their employers or Department of Health awards.

Monitoring Academic Progress

Institutions and faculties are expected to establish processes and resources that monitor progress of the PhD students at different levels and time intervals. Pressure by funding bodies to achieve graduation within a specified time has forced many schools to introduce more systematic monitoring processes. There are two main elements to monitor academic progress.

The first focuses on the individual student and their supervisor or supervisory team. Term or annual progress reports of both students and the academic staff/faculty advisors should be submitted to the faculty committee that monitors academic progress, and steps should be taken if progress is unsatisfactory.

This may involve additional support for staff/faculty or a change in the supervisory team/dissertation committee or even interruption of studies if personal circumstances of the student are creating a problem. The second element is evaluation of the student’s program and the staff/faculty contribution.

Supervisors hold the key to progress and have an obligation to support students whenever possible, but they also need support to make some uncomfortable decisions. When students cannot progress, this must be confronted, analyzed , and reported. Discontinuation may be necessary, but interruption in studies may also be helpful.

Teamwork in a panel and the school/faculty committee is essential to support and not personalize such decisions. Universities have two-way obligations also. They need to provide audit processes and ensure that students are given the support and expertise they require.

Yet they also need to ensure that completion rates are satisfactory so that funding agencies approve more resources for future students. For this to happen, collaborative mentorship should be in full action, including facilitative strategies and empowerment of faculty and students ( Meleis et al, 1994).

Graduation Criteria

The award of a doctorate is seen internationally as a demonstration of competence to work effectively and independently within the discipline and making substantial original contribution to nursing’s knowledge base. Recently, other abilities have also been added to these criteria, including the capacity to interrogate those performances in a self-critical text. Satisfactory performance in a written preliminary examination/qualifying examination precedes the formation of the dissertation committee.

Final theses/dissertations are expected to demonstrate coherence of thought, originality in research ideas and a comprehensive description of the research process.

This should include critical literature reviews, demonstrated competence in research methodology and data analysis, and sophisticated analysis of previous evidence to demonstrate how the new findings add to the knowledge Several universities request that the thesis document not be permanently bound when submitted for examination.

This allows improvements to be made when suggested by examiners, and it is increasingly rare for candidates to have absolutely no changes recommended. The substantial PhD volume of up to 100,000 words represents a major academic achievement; Supervisors have the main responsibility to ensure that the style and content are appropriate for doctoral work.

Before submission, a review of the final draft by members of the panel/committee and another peer may help towards high success rates in the process. Examination of the thesis and taught components is necessarily impartial and essentially involves at least one external academic staff/faculty, who is experienced in supervision and is appointed by a university panel of experts in the field.

This viva voce, variously conducted as either an interview or public defense of the study, is conducted by the examiners (usually two in the UK and five in Brazil and the USA), who confirmed the candidate’s depth of knowledge and total involvement in the work as their own contribution (UK Council for Graduate Education, 2002).

Inclusion of published papers as part of the thesis/dissertation is increasingly popular. This is well established in Scandinavia, where the core of the final thesis has been seen as a logical way to present a program of work. However, other institutions have favored a much smaller proportion of the final thesis or report to be presented as papers, considering that the final arbiter of standards should be the examiners rather than editors of the journals.

Successful students usually demonstrate scientific production disseminated in scientific meetings and indexed scientific journals, grants, prizes/awards received, a pattern of productive scholarship, and collaboration with researchers in nursing and other disciplines in scientific endeavors .

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