Instructional Methods Lucille Martin In Nursing Education: Traditional Methods

The Instructional Methods Lucille Martin In Nursing Education and Traditional Methods. In nursing Education all education components and theories are same but from the nursing educational point of view.

Traditional Methods of Instruction: Instructional Methods Lucille Martin In Nursing Education

The lecture and discussion constitute the backbone of instructional methods. This is in no way meant to stimulate the spirit of adventure that should accompany every day of teaching. Each of these methods can be varied in countless ways to make them new and different, but the core is still lecture and discussion.

Lecture

The lecture is a common technique in teaching, probably because most teachers were taught in this mode; and we teach as we were taught. The lecture is suited to large groups, and may take several forms. The formal lecture uses a very tight and polished format; it provides for only minimal exchange between student and teacher. The lecture is an efficient, cost-effective way of disseminating content to a large number of people in a reasonable time frame. It is most effective in the cognitive domain.

This domain refers to the acquisition of information and the learner’s intellectual abilities. The lecturer does not just present information, but also demonstrates patterns, highlights main ideas, and generally presents a unique way of viewing the topic. The masterful lecturer uses the occasion to role model problem-solving and critical and creative thinking. Good teaching requires self-awareness and “split-consciousness.” “Split-consciousness” is the ability to pay attention concurrently to both the content of the speech and its delivery.

In fact, these qualities lie at the very heart of all types of truly effective teaching. Often lecture is combined with recitations that involve smaller numbers of students. In recitation, points made in the lecture are explained and students are given an opportunity to question or present their own ideas on the subject material, thus providing affective domain learning.

The affective domain is known as the “feeling” domain, and involves the depth of a person’s emotional response to the subject matter in terms of attitudes, beliefs, and values. Although the lecture is largely teacher-centered, more active involvement of students is possible. The teacher can encourage student participation during lecture, by using controversial questions or “devil’s advocate” positions to engage and provoke the learner.

Whether a relatively passive or more active process, lecture takes considerable preparation time on the part of the teacher, and requires mastery of the topic. The lecture format does not assume that teachers know it all, and they should be open to admitting when there are points about which they are not conversant. Every lecture should be approached inductively, sharing with students the objectives, out comes, and expectations of the session.

This occurs in the introductory phase, and typically should be no more than 5 minutes. A brief overview of the content is helpful, in addition to some idea of how this material is essential to their professional life, and the assurance that they can learn what is necessary. The body of the lecture should be well organized. Transition from one topic or subtopic to another should be seamless. In nursing, it is impossible to introduce students to all the content that is necessary to practice.

That being the case, reading and library research assignments should have been completed before any lecture. The lecture should be used to tease out and clarify the fine points, and to demonstrate evidence-based, critical, and creative thinking. The teacher should serve as a role model, provoking the students to question and challenge their thinking. This is antithetical to the usual formal lecture, but much more productive with students preparing for professional practice.

In other words, material assigned for out-of-class reading may be taught through application and demonstration. Case material is often stimulating and makes content “live.” Process becomes content. In lecturing, notes are helpful and often necessary. Make them brief and unobtrusive. Reading notes verbatim is not acceptable. The session should appear effortless. The lecturer should make each individual in an audience of hundreds feel as if she or he is the only student.

Make eye contact with a student in each of the far corners of the room. Use creative movements and avoid using a podium. Move around the room if possible, and put your notes on index cards, overheads, or PowerPoint. Keep these notes to a minimum. Introduce a change of pace periodically. Woodring reminds us that an individual’s optimum attention span is “roughly one-minute per year of age up to the approximate age of 45” (2001). Plan changes of pace or breaks accordingly.

The lecture session closes with a definite conclusion of no more than 5 minutes. The teacher should take this opportunity to summarize key points from the lecture; reiterates the objectives, out comes, and expectations stated in the introduction; and build a case for the essentiality of the content, not necessarily in that order. In research on what makes lectures and lecturers unsuccessful, the criticisms have focused on the teacher, not the method.

Comments speak to a lack of organization, poor quality or absence of visual aids, lack of enthusiasm in delivery, too great a dependency on notes, inadequate knowledge of a subject, obliviousness to learners’ need for breaks, and no acknowledgment that adult learners like to participate (Woodring, 1997). Although this study is 9 years old, the criticisms still ring true. F

rom the perspective of the teacher, many criticize that students are so completely occupied with note taking that they miss the central message of the lecture. Providing students with an outline of the content or printout of a PowerPoint presentation may eliminate the need to take copious notes. For many, however, taking notes is a big part of the learning process and even if an outline is provided, they will still choose to take notes. Using the computer, it is easy and necessary to provide outlines and other supplementary class material to students.

Discussion/Questions and Answers as an Adjunct to Lecture

Discussion and questions and answers are frequently used as an adjunct to lecture. Most educators agree that lecture should be accompanied by some opportunity for student expression or reaction. Although this does not automatically produce effective teaching, adequate incorporation of active student involvement will greatly facilitate communication.

Along with satisfying the need for involvement, this approach to teaching also provides feedback for the teacher on how the content is being received and whether students understand what we are teaching. Inviting students to participate by asking questions or prompting discussion also conveys the message that it is their class rather than the teacher’s class.

Such identification with the teaching-learning experience may well motivate students and increase their learning level. The advantages of offering these techniques are discussed further under group discussion.

The use of questions and answers in class is a perfectly legitimate approach to teaching, but a distinction should be made with discussion. Perhaps the best way to show a difference is to emphasize the kind of question involved. Question and answer teaching almost always deals with factual data and objective responses, the lower level of the cognitive domain.

Very often it is a review of material previously studied by the students, or just covered in a lecture. Although thought questions can certainly be used in this approach to teaching, there is a tendency for a thought question to lapse into discussion. Both of these techniques are appropriate, but teachers should be able to identify when they are using discussion as opposed to questions and answers.

In higher education, the use of question and answer in the traditional sense is rare; and teachers should model their outreach for class interaction on higher levels of the cognitive domain, which should easily initiate discussion. Challenge will soon be extinguished when students know that questions are coming in a certain definable pattern, or if the name of a student is always attached right at the outset. Never be negative towards a student’s response. Even when the wrong answer is given, the good teacher will find some element of truth or commendation to reinforce the answer.

Group Discussion

Group discussion is learner-centered with the teacher assuming the role of facilitator and content resource. Group is active learning for both the affective and cognitive domains. The primary benefit of discussion is its emphasis on individual thinking skills, the opportunity for students to translate information into their own words in a public arena, and reflect upon their own learning and reaction.

Thus, good discussion sessions must engage all students in a dialogue and be facilitated closely by the teacher. The group can be a rich venue for exchange of information, as well as feelings, values, and opinions. It is crucial to have clear and well-developed objectives that are shared at the beginning of every group session, and reviewed periodically.

This will keep the group from becoming aim less. In fact, two sets of objectives are in order, one for content and the other for the process of the group experience. The discussion method may prove especially difficult for the novice teacher, so the need for objectives focused on process is especially strategic. It becomes the role of the teacher to keep the discussion on track, tie points together, transition between topics, and maintains an environment of trust.

Respectful attention and tolerance must be the operational rule, and should be modeled by the teacher. The teacher must be well versed in the subject matter, and the students must have some working knowledge; “otherwise, the discussion will be based on pooled ignorance” (Fitzgerald, 2003). In the role of expert, the teacher must be alert in case any group member interprets information incorrectly. The teacher assumes the role of facilitator and the content evolves from the work of group members, creating the potential for erroneous facts or misinterpretation.

In addition, because students typically defer to faculty, it has to be made clear to students that their opinions are the most important in this learning process. Just getting people to talk does not guarantee that a genuine learning-by-discussion situation is in effect. The teacher is responsible for the quality of the discussion and the achievement of the learning products. Teaching by discussion uses one of the best principles of the learning process, namely, active student involvement in the experience.

A good discussion will help students to think and think about thinking. This is what is typically defined as critical thinking. It allows students to share ideas, receiving peer support, and developing a tolerance for those with whom they may disagree. The feeling of belonging that can be created is experiential (part of the experience), and contributes to reinforcing and retaining previous and current learning.

The group milieu, if it is nurtured correctly, gives students an opportunity to correct earlier misconceptions and gain a sense of direction. Critical and creative thinking can be developed and skills of verbal expression stimulated. Teaching by discussion is also a motivational technique that encourages a student to think through concepts that have been hazy. Wrong conclusions may be corrected through the influence of the group rather than through the unilateral actions of the teacher.

Problem-solving techniques are learned and can be applied not only in the search for knowledge, but also in all aspects of life. In determining the best group size, one must consider the need for diversity of ideas, and the degree of interaction that is possible. Arnold and Boggs recommend that a group of six to eight individuals is ideal (2003). Others believe that closer to ten is better, with the teacher working to regulate the dynamics of the group, and aiming for participation that is universal and equal.

In either case, the goal is to provide enough students for rich interaction, yet not so many that the discussion becomes unruly. The teacher should also be attuned to cultural factors, realizing that some students will find it difficult to participate actively in the group because of their background. This is most observable with students who are recent immigrants to this country.

Adult students are particularly comfortable in discussion groups, since they often come to the educational experience with highly developed communication skills and some group experience already. For the less sophisticated learner, these skills will be one of the goals of this method. This should be a consideration in decisions on group composition. Does heterogeneity in group help some students to develop at the expense of others? The group discussion may take many forms.

Planned debate between groups or within groups helps to expand the thought process, and sharpen reasoning. In the seminar, each member completes assigned readings before the meeting, allowing an active discussion. The case method or problem-based approach is best used in conjunction with clinical application courses, and offers the opportunity to apply the standard of evidence-based practice, and develop critical and creative thinking skills through the consideration of case simulations or actual clinical material (Bentley, 2002).

Problem-based learning is particularly effective with adult learners whose priority is the practical application of what they have learned. Recitation groups allow for guided study and further explication of content that has been presented in larger lecture sessions. These are usually breakout groups from a larger lecture session. Reflective practice groups encourage the examination of nursing care to expose the contradictions in one’s own practice, and are best positioned as part of the pre- and post-clinical conference experience.

The biggest problem with reflective practice groups is the need to have a safe environment for disclosure. Absent a cohesive group, full disclosure is difficult or impossible (Noveletsky-Rosenthal, 2001). Discussion groups may also be exclusively process oriented, aiming to give students some insight into their interpersonal skills, and develop options for productive social and professional living.

Instructional Methods Lucille Martin In Nursing Education: Traditional Methods