Curriculum Development: Curriculum Frame, Level and Course Objectives, Course Content and Outlines, Teaching/Learning Strategies, Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum Frame Level and Course Objectives Course Content and Outlines Teaching/Learning Strategies Curriculum Evaluation: Curriculum Development

Curriculum Development: Curriculum Frame, Level and Course Objectives, Course Content and Outlines, Teaching/Learning Strategies, Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum Framework

A curriculum framework provides a way for faculty to conceptualize and organize knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs that are critical to the delivery of a coherent curriculum. An organizing framework also facilitates the sequencing and prioritizing of knowledge in a way that is logical and internally consistent (Finke & Boland, 1998).

A framework organizes the curriculum, whereas a philosophy provides a belief and value base for the curricular structure and content. Several models have been used by faculty for nursing curricula. For example, the medical model is still the dominant model used in schools of nursing, despite the fact that the model encompasses only those aspects of nursing that are shared with medicine.

Content in such a model is usually organized by body systems (eg, cardiovascular, orthopedic) or larger categories of medical specialties (eg, medical, surgical, obstetrics ). The model emphasizes medical diseases and pathophysiology, and relates nursing care to medical diagnoses. The behaviorist model (based on the behaviorist philosophy mentioned earlier) is often applied within a medical model. There is a “focus on rule driven, predictable, outcomes for student learning.

The teacher concentrates on teaching facts, directives, rules, theories, laws, and principles. . . At its core, it has information as its primary content and acquiring and using information in performance as its learning intent” (Bevis, 1989/1982, iii–iv). Lecture is a primary teaching strategy in this model. A behaviorist curriculum model is directive, under teacher control, and “tells” the student what and how to do tasks. The epistemological (concept) model is organized by ideas and themes rather than subject matter or process skills (eg, pain, delegation).

The focus is on understanding and appreciation of systems of knowledge, key ideas, themes, and principles. For example, a pathophysiology course might focus on concepts such as edema, instead of the cardiovascular system, and on pattern recognition instead of each area of content being separated into body systems or medical diseases. The teacher’s role is that of interactive questioner. Students focus on reading, reflecting, and writing. Teachers need to have in-depth knowledge about a field, and make connections to other fields.

They need a consistent vision, perception, and insight (Van Tassel-Baska, 2004). Faculty may also use an existing nursing theorist model to organize the nursing curriculum. The model may be derived from supporting sciences (eg, stress/adaptation) or nursing (eg, Orem, Roy, Leddy). An Orem-based curriculum, for example, would focus on providing care in a variety of situations where a patient might be unable to provide self-care. A Roy-based curriculum might emphasize stimuli and adaptive modes.

And, a Leddy-based curriculum would focus on human being–environment mutual process and energetic patterning. A single theory may not reflect everyone’s vision or language, however. Some faculties choose to develop an eclectic model, selecting concepts from several models or theories.

For example, both the Roy and Neuman models emphasize the role of stimulus. It is necessary for the parent models or theories to share a common worldview, and attention needs to be paid to ensure that the meaning of the concepts in the various model/theories is consistent with the original. The use of theory encourages a structured line of reasoning. “A framework establishes boundaries and intent, which provides structure and direction for content” (Webber, 2002, p. 16).

An organizing framework provides a meaningful picture of the knowledge that is important to nursing and how that knowledge is defined, categorized, sequenced , and linked with other knowledge. Acting as a blueprint, the framework structures knowledge in a meaningful way for faculty, students, administrators, evaluators, and others (Daggett, Butts, & Smith, 2002). It also reduces the influence of emotions, traditions, or rationalizations on faculty decision-making (Torres & Stanton, 1982).

Curriculum Matrix

A curriculum matrix is composed of vertical and horizontal content strands. Vertical strands represent content areas such as leadership that increase in complexity at each level of the curriculum. Horizontal strands are processes that apply the content throughout the curriculum, like clinical decision-making (Torres & Stanton, 1982).

Vertical strands may be leveled by degree of difficulty, complexity, past experience, or frequency of utilization. Integrated content (eg, teaching-learning) tends to be more easily included in vertical strands. Horizontal and vertical strands identify and structure the content of the educational process, and give a sequence to nursing learning experiences, prerequisite content, and supporting courses. A matrix of curriculum content is a very useful strategy to permit visualization of curriculum content, and prevent overlaps or omissions of content. The matrix sequences content elements appropriately, and:

1. Identifies the specific content elements that should be taught within each course. 2. Allows the faculty to better understand what the students were previously taught, thus facilitating building the content in a progressive manner.
2. Gives the faculty and students a sense of direction because it shows which content elements will follow.
3. Gives structure to the differentiation of content elements from one course to another.
4. Assists in recognizing content areas not previously identified. The matrix clearly identifies the general content that needs to be in the courses at each level of the curriculum.

Level and Course Objectives

Level and course objectives are derived from characteristics, or cumulative goals to be achieved by the graduate, and are informed by the curriculum matrix. They contain:

• The level of achievement expected at any given point within the program.
• The identification of content from the vertical strands.
• A process component from the horizontal strands, for example, the content might relate to the content of communication, while the process might be delegation of duties to auxiliary personnel. This might result in a course objective such as, “demonstrates effective communication skills when delegating duties to auxiliary personnel” within a level objective such as, “communicates effectively with other members of the health-care team.”

Course Content and Outlines

After clarification and modification of previous steps in the curriculum development process, the curriculum matrix and curriculum framework are used to identify and sequence course requirements so that learning experiences are structured throughout the program. Many programs are congested with content that overwhelms students with too much content and detracts from learning. “Providing skills for learning and acquisition of information is better than mastery of content” (Speziale & Jacobson, 2005, p. 234).

Some important considerations in the development of courses follow:

• About one-third of courses should be in general education, such as English and Humanities; one-third in supporting courses, and one-third in nursing courses.

• The flexibility of the curriculum should be enhanced by allowing free electives and limited prerequisites to courses.

• In a progressive design, more supporting courses, such as microbiology and nutrition, are offered early in the curriculum. Nursing starts early and increases as the student progresses through the program.

• In a parallel design, the same amount of nursing is offered in each year.

• In a collection-type curriculum, the kind most prevalent, each subject is treated as an independent entity having little or no connection to others.

• Areas about which faculty are most familiar usually require the greatest amount of content.

Criteria for course content include the following:

• The depth and breadth of the content must be appropriate for the learner.

• The validity of the content must be assessed (empirically tested).

• The content must reflect the emerging health-care system and the changing role of the nurse.

• Content that encourages generalizations, such as how to recognize patterns in health/illness manifestations, and how to link and synthesize content, should be emphasized.

• The content should be progressive, starting with areas that are more easily learned and foundational to areas of content that are highly dependent on previous learning and require synthesis.

This should not be viewed as going from the simple to the complex, but rather as an approach in which emphasis is placed on the learner’s ability to deal with specific pieces of information at any given period of time.

• The content should motivate the student to learn. It is not only how well the content is presented that is significant but also how such content relates to what the student perceives as essential in his or her learning.

• The content must reflect the level within the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains that is appropriate in relation to the stated objectives. Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) of cognitive levels from simple to complex consists of knowledge (identifies steps); comprehension (differentiates among the steps); application(applies); analysis (relates to); synthesis (proposes interventions); and evaluation (determines priorities).

One framework that may assist faculty to identify course content is the knowledge/skills/ values/meanings/experience (KSVME) framework. In this framework, “nursing is defined as the desire, intent, and obligation to apply discipline-specific knowledge, skills, values, meanings, and experience (KSVME) for, with, or on behalf of those requiring and/or requesting assistance in achieving and maintaining their desired state of health and/or well-being” (Webber, 2002, p. 17).

Nursing knowledge is defined as the cumulative, organized, and dynamic body of scientific and phenomenological information used to identify, relate, understand, explain, predict, influence, and/or control nursing phenomena” (p. 17). Nursing knowledge is discipline specific.

Understanding and reasoning help to operationalize knowledge through some or all of the following content:

• Relevant scientific and phenomenological theory

• Discipline-specific theory

• Health

• Health promotion

• Health experiences

• Environment

• Diverse factors influencing care (age, gender, race, culture , family, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, geographic region)

• Policies and procedures

• Factors influencing discipline/profession (research, health-care policy and economics, law and ethics, standards [national, specialty, institutional])

• Professional roles and responsibilities (manage and coordinate)

• Health-care delivery systems Skills are deliberate acts or activities in the cognitive and psychomotor domain that operationalize nursing knowledge, values, meanings, and experience (p. 19). Some relevant skills include:

• Nursing practice: Integration of KSVME in the delivery of therapeutic nursing interventions

• Safety

• Communication

• Critical thinking/reasoning (knowing, pattern identification, understanding)

• Collaboration

• Leadership/followership

• Delegation

• Creativity

• Learning/teaching

• Technology “values are enduring beliefs, attributes, or ideals that establish moral boundaries of what is right and wrong in thought, judgment, character, attitude, and behavior and that form a foundation for decision making throughout life” ( webber , 2002, p. 20).

Relevant values include:

• Professional behavior (honesty, integrity, dignity, respect, ethics, morality, confidentiality, attitude)

• Role development

• Collegiality

• Holism

• KSVME of other

Meanings define the context, purpose, and intent of language, and may include :

• Nursing language

• Accountability/responsibility

• Accreditation/control forces (NLN, JCAHO, HCFA, AACN, specialty)

• Synergy

• Nursing history

• Registration/certification

Another framework that is increasingly being integrated into nursing curricula is care and caring. These concepts may include having concern for another, valuing, providing for, protecting, having responsibility for, helping, assigning importance to, serving, and being solicitous (p. 21).

Teaching/Learning Strategies

Teaching/learning strategies are the processes that are used for the actual delivery of the curriculum. The following list describes some principles that should be considered when choosing teaching/learning strategies. Teaching/learning strategies should:

• Clearly relate to the desired objectives and competencies, learning domain, and domain level.

• Be geared to and appropriate for the cognitive, affective, or psychomotor development of the students.

• Be challenging so that they move students to higher levels of cognitive and affective development.

• Be emotionally satisfying for students.

• Stimulate development of alternative perspectives of the problem or issue.

• Be sufficiently varied to prevent boredom, allow for and exploit the potential for individual student differences, and enable participation in transcultural experiences (Norton, 1998, p. 155).

• Articulate and allow application of some previous learning experiences within the same course as well as experiences from previous and concurrent courses.

• Provide a foundation for subsequent learning.

Creative curriculum development, the development of materials that faculty work with, should enable the faculty to provide students with activities that teach ideas, skills, or forms of perception that are educationally important, intellectually challenging, and stimulate higher-order thinking. Content is not restricted to text alone and the content students study should help them make connections with what they learn in other areas, including those outside of the school.

For example, schools might consider requiring that students take a certified nursing assistant course before admission to the nursing program. That could effectively reduce the time and effort usually expended teaching and perfecting basic psychomotor skills. Available materials should provide multiple teaching options , such as small-group discussion, role playing, independent study, out-of-class (eg, web-based) assignment, or laboratory practice for teachers to pursue (Eisner, 1990).

Such options might include:

• Classroom activity (lecture, role playing, large-group activity), which provides the basic structure to guide learning, and is most economical in use of space and faculty time, but tends not to focus on individual learning styles, and supports greater student passivity.

• Small-group activity, which allows for greater interactions between faculty and students as well as between students, facilitates discussion of attitudes, and allows for a greater degree of activity on the part of the student, but is not as economical in use of time and space, and often does not play to faculty strengths.

• Independent activities (eg, term papers, readings), which provide for reinforcement and greater clarity of previous learning on an individual basis, but often lack adequate faculty guidance to achieve optimal learning, and because this option is less directive in terms of learning, can cause duplications or vacuums in the content elements, and take up faculty time.

• Laboratory experiences (school, clinical), which reinforce knowledge and attitudes while allowing students to practice psychomotor skills, provide a “real” worldview of nursing, allow for the use of role models as a learning strategy, and are most supportive of the concept that faculty members are catalysts in the learning activity.

They are difficult to control in terms of the variables that influence learning, require the greatest amount of time and energy on the part of faculty and students, and are the most costly. “Active student participation in learning activities, accompanied by faculty feedback comprises one of the most powerful experiences in the learning process” (Norton, 1998, p. 153). Faculty members should be active participants and guides in learning, not mere lecturers (Dillard & Laidig, 1998).

In active learning, there is less sustained lecture time, students are involved through stimulation to talk more, participate, and invest energy. Teaching methods, such as games, simulations, plays, newspapers, case studies, and reflective writing, foster active learning.

Students need to be enabled to show more initiative by asking for student contributions, using more student ideas, giving students alternative courses from which to choose, providing more praise, accepting student feelings, being attentive to student comments, being accepting of different points of view , giving explanations of why praise or criticism is given, and providing structured (present a report, small group) and unstructured activities (Web-based or literature-based review).

In contrast, passive learning still has its role. These activities can present a great deal of information in a short time. Lecture notes, handouts, and audiovisual media can be prepared ahead of time and faculty members feel comfortable because they are in control. Students are socialized to these methods and little student cognitive effort is required.

Constraints in choosing and implementing learning activities include:

• Lack of faculty experience and knowledge

• Lack of understanding of students’ knowledge and skills

• High faculty/student ratio

• Personal attributes (eg, personality)

• Student stress and anxiety (resistance to active participation )

• Inability to use equipment/technology

• Inadequate time for activity and debriefing

• Inadequate funds for technology and equipment

Teaching methodologies are often based on the faculty member’s perception of student abilities instead of on the objectives of the course. In addition, clinical hours may be set according to a predetermined schedule instead of the time needed to meet the course objectives. The emphasis should be on the ability of students to meet objectives, not on how the objective is to be met.

Multiple learning activities with options should be offered, within the limits of available time and energy resources. Also, although it is rarely considered, both faculty and students need support systems to deal with the stress and anxiety of the educational program.

The school administration and faculty colleagues are potentially most helpful here, but faculty should also use family and friend networks to diffuse some of the stress, and put it into perspective. Once the curriculum has been developed, the last stage is to develop the plan by which the curriculum will be systematically evaluated.

Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is summative, or outcome-based, and judged by the characteristics of the graduate. Congruence with instructional goals, criteria, and standards, and use for planning is necessary. Evaluation of curriculum elements is necessary as the curriculum is being implemented; Evaluation of the total curriculum is relevant after graduation of the first student cohort. The criteria for assessment of the curriculum process ensure consistency among the component parts, including:

• The flow of the content elements can be seen within all of the components, especially between the philosophy and learning experiences.
• The terms used may have a variety of meanings within the discipline but they must be consistent in their meaning within the specific program.
• The ideas expressed among and within each component are supportive rather than contradictory. The evaluation process should consider the:
• Context, including mission and goals setting, internal and external forces, and beliefs of faculty.
• Input, including resources, students, program plan, curriculum organization, and support courses.
• Process, including courses, teaching/learning activities, and student learning.
• Outcomes, including general education outcomes, NCLEX-RN results, and communication and critical thinking abilities.

The evaluation process might include both

(1) criterion-referenced evaluation that considers student achievement of content within objectives

(2) norm-referenced evaluation that compares students to others at a similar level (eg, NCLEX-RN results).

Surveys can be emailed to representative groups of graduates, faculty, nursing and university administrators, and external constituents (eg, nursing service staff and administration). Evaluation includes values and evaluating about what is worth evaluating; is goal oriented; incorporates norms; is comprehensive and has continuity. Evaluation should be ongoing, frequent, recurrent, and continuous; have diagnostic worth, validity, and reliability; and the findings need to be integrated into ongoing curriculum revision and development .

Conclusion

Curriculum development is a linear process, a sequence of events that consists of a series of systematic, logical, dynamic, spiraled, and progressive stages (Torres & Stanton, 1982): program outcomes, a philosophy with an integrated framework, vertical and horizontal content strands for each course (curriculum matrix), level and course objectives, course content with teaching and learning strategies, and formative and summative outcome-based curriculum evaluation techniques.

It addresses current situations that affect student make-up and selection, health-care changes, and is driven by professional organization requirements. Over the years, curriculum design has changed from a process-oriented approach to an outcome-oriented approach, which means that nursing faculty has to be “fine-tuned” to the outcomes of not only their program but the community health-care need requirements as well.

Development of the outcome-driven curriculum begins with desired endpoints or outcomes with content and teaching strategies changing to meet these endpoints. Faculty communication is essential throughout this process.

Read More:

https://nurseseducator.com/curriculum-development-overview-of-the-stages-and-faculty-communication-processes/

https://nurseseducator.com/curriculum-development-stages-and-activities-program-outcomes-students-and-philosophy/

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