Changing Perspectives on Doctoral Education
The overall approach to doctoral education has come under increasing scrutiny in the past five years, particularly but not exclusively in the USA. Often, employers of doctoral graduates are critical of the lack of various skills in the graduates visà -vis needs of the contemporary workplace.
Some of the criticism around doctoral education has focused on how the curriculum and learning experiences prepare ‘citizen scholars’ who can better meet the needs of society (Nyquist, 2002). These criticisms have examined graduates in faculty and nonacademic positions alike. Because of these issues, innovations and alternative models for doctoral programs are beginning to appear in universities.
The types of skills that all employers are looking for today have several common themes. Employers in all types of settings value the research skills and ability to think critically that are typically found in doctoral graduates.
However, these employers also need doctoral graduates with the ability to function in teams, conduct committee meetings and facilitate decision making in a group context, the ability to manage conflict and create productive work environments with other employees who come from increasingly diverse backgrounds and points of view. view, and to work in environments that are continually changing.
Current critics find the learning experiences in many doctoral programs too intense and narrow, too lengthy, focused primarily on research training and knowledge generation without a requirement for application of that knowledge to address contemporary social issues, too discipline- and campus-based with insufficient learning experiences in the community, and insufficient preparation of doctoral graduates to assume leadership positions (Cherwitz and Sullivan, 2002; Gaff, 2002; Nyquist and Woodford, 2002).
A major project, entitled ‘Re -envisioning the PhD’, has been examining the issues from the perspectives of various stakeholders of doctoral education programs. These stakeholders include faculty, funding agencies, leaders in industry and the public policy arena, and students themselves.
Interviews from over 400 stakeholders have produced the development of a variety of core competencies for doctoral graduates to be successful in assuming leadership roles in the academic, government, and the non-profit and corporate sectors. In addition to disciplinary knowledge, these competencies include teaching competence, understanding diversity, an ability to connect one’s work with that of others across disciplines, a global perspective and an ability to understand ethical behavior in a social context (Nyquist, 2002).
Market Demands
Many academics argue that doctoral education must match the needs of the nation (see, for example, Randolph, 1990; Atwell, 1996; Phillips, 1998; McGinn, 2000). Faculty shortages of doctorally prepared nurses in the USA are growing steadily. Demand has exceeded supply and this is expected to continue for the foreseeable future (AACN, 2002; Berlin et al, 2003). LaPidus (1996) argues that graduates must know their fields, understand the process of scholarly inquiry and realistically grasp how these valuable skills may be deployed across a variety of purposes, settings and careers.
In the field of science, industry is looking for highly trained individuals with good technical grounding, excellent writing skills, an understanding of statistics, computing and often mathematical skills, ability to undertake a variety of research processes, and effective interpersonal skills (Phillips, 1998; Golde and Fiske, 2000). Whatever the field, the propensity for working independently and effectively under pressure, particularly to solve problems in variable conditions, is another key factor in securing employment ( Mangematin et al, 2000; Hertel et al, 2001).
These qualities are most likely to be identified in students undertaking part-time employment or apprenticeships in industry during their studies. Securing a university scholarship or grant, thereby denying the necessity to seek work in industry during candidature, greatly reduces the probability of finding a permanent position in industry upon graduation (Mangematin et al, 2000).
For example, Zimpfer and DeTrude (1990) identified that while counseling graduates were highly job mobile, 41.7% were able to return to their industry-based positions and the remainder were highly sought after in the private market because of their ability to apply their knowledge and problems. -solving skills to the position.
The potential for an academic appointment remains largely with success as a student in many countries (Phillips, 1998; Mangematin et al, 2000). Top ranking universities continue to hire highly achieving graduates, whereas less competitive universities are keen to establish relationships with industries for linked research projects (Horn, 1999).
Securing a research grant for doctoral studies, publishing and securing part-time work during candidature, being supervised by highly regarded academics and undertaking the degree at a prestigious university, completing the degree on time and achieving high degrees during study, are the hallmarks of a successful student who seeks an academic career.
However, these student outcomes apply more to research than to teaching careers in academia, and having a temporary or part-time academic position prior to or during the candidature is more likely to provide teaching opportunities for the graduate. Recruitment prospects can also depend on the reputation or visibility of the university, the reputation of its members, and hence, its funding capacity (Mangematin et al, 2000).
Social Issues Benefits and Costs
The current push for doctoral students in all fields of inquiry, and the training opportunities available to them are both problematic issues. There are social costs in undertaking doctoral studies (Wolff, 1995; LaPidus , 1997; Phillips, 1998; Yin, 1998; McGinn, 2000). Atwell (1996) argues that most new doctoral graduates are weighted down by debt and insecurity about their futures.
The necessity for many doctoral students to undertake part-time studies in order to support themselves and their families with part-time work, thereby extending the candidature over five years or more, has several social consequences.
If employment opportunities are not commensurate with graduate expectations, they may be forced to seek positions at their previous levels of employment, or in completely new fields or locations, or be forced to take part-time employment at a lower salary than previously if they have not been able to maintain employment links with their previous employer (Phillips, 1998; Moyer and Salovey, 1999; Hult, 2000; Xiao, 2000).
The personal cost to graduates and their families is high in these situations. This issue highlights the contradictions which exist between the current educational system and the dynamic market economy.
The consequence of not being adequately trained in applied research during doctoral study is also a problem for many graduates and one of the reasons for failing to find desired employment in the marketplace (Mangematin et al, 2000). In fields where the number of graduates is relatively small, for example in nursing (Williams, 1996) and political science or politics (Yin, 1998), degree status continues to be the best indicator for employment, as it doesin countries with few doctoral programs such as in China (Xiao, 2000).
Only the most highly achieving graduates or those guaranteed employment upon graduation are likely to benefit from their degrees in the short term (Hult, 2000; Xiao, 2000; Golde and Fiske, 2000). Many will return to previously held positions at the same salary, despite greater expectations placed on them (McGinn, 2000), or undertake positions which do not allow them to use their advanced knowledge and skills at a commensurate level (Siegfried and Stock, 1999) .
Many graduates, therefore, are unable to contribute to their field of inquiry through further research, scholarship and teaching (Atwell, 1996; Lieberman, 1997; Smallwood, 2001). Less prestigious universities are responding to this challenge by preparing their students for applied research, rather than academic careers.
The graduate’s ability to work on an array of problems is promoted over specialization in accordance with many employers’ requirements (Horn, 1999). However, the most prestigious universities and faculties are not heeding market drivers, and the skills of research and teaching which could contribute to the faculty’s continued growth are increasingly being lost to industry and the corporate world (Smallwood, 2001).
A rarely discussed social cost is the attrition of students from doctoral programs. About 50% of those who begin work towards a doctoral degree never finish. This high attrition rate is described as ‘one of academy’s best kept secrets.’ In nursing the attrition rate is much lower, but the concerns are similar to those expressed in the literature.
The attrition rate for women and racial/ethnic minorities is even higher but exact figures are not known (Delamont et al, 2000; Lovitts , 2001). The high attrition rates are due to multiple factors: disillusionment with the academic role, the absence of strong mentoring, disappointment with the learning experience, personal life circumstances. The costs to the students who leave, as well as to the universities and society for their partial investment in the students, have not been calculated but are likely substantial.
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